Post No. 4: The Scientific Method.

The Scientific Method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations, testing, answer questions and reach to a conclusion. Scientists of all fields need to test their theories. There are many versions of the scientific method but the goal remains the same that is to discover cause and effects by asking questions, trying many times until finding results. Some of the questions are: How, What, When, Who, Which, or Where. Then we need to construct a Hypothesis (this is an observation about how the theory work), then we need to test the Hypothesis by doing an experiment and analyze the data and draw a conclusion.

Generally is considered that Francis Bacon (1561-1626) has been considered as the Father of the Scientific Method because he argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. He argued that this could be achieved by use of a skeptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. Galileo (1564-1642) used a heavily inductive scientific method because he understood that no empirical evidence could perfectly math theoretical predictions. He was influenced by the work of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Galileo’s biggest contribution may have been his systematic study of motion, which was based on simple mathematical descriptions. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) had an uncanny ability to develop a few relatively simple concepts and equations that held enormous predictive power.

In his “Instauration Magna, Bacon proposed a new approach to scientific inquiry, which he published in 1621 the “NOVUM Organum Scientiarum. This new approach advocated inductive reasoning as the foundation of scientific thinking. He argued that only a clear system of scientific inquiry would assure man’s mastery over the world. One of his most famous quotes is: “Knowledge is power.”

Aristotle’s (384-322 BC) work on scientific method have been assembled into a body of texts known as the Organon, which is composed of six different writings…when the conclusion is a valid logical consequence of the major and minor premise, Aristotle calls this logical structure a syllogism. Using the syllogism, scientists could infer new universal truths from those already established. He developed a complete normative approach to scientific inquiry involving the syllogism, which he discusses at length in his Posterior Analytics. A difficulty with this scheme lay in showing that derived truths have solid primary premises. Aristotle would not allow that demonstrations could be circular (supporting the conclusion by the premises, and the premises by the conclusion). Nor would he allow an infinite number of middle terms between the primary premises and the conclusion. One of his famous quotes is: “Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom”

The Six works that comprises the Organon are as follow:

“1 The Categories introduces Aristotle’s 10-fold classification of that which exists: substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, situation, condition, action and passion.

2. On Interpretation, introduces his conception of proposition and judgment, and various relations between affirmative, negative, universal, and particular propositions. He discusses the square of opposition or square of Apuleius in Chapter 7 and its appendix Chapter 8. Chapter 9 deals with the problem of future contingents.

3. The Prior Analytics, introduces his syllogistic method (see term logic), argues for its correctness, and discusses inductive inference.

4. The Posterior Analytics deals with demonstration, definition and scientific knowledge.

5. The Topics treats of issues in constructing valid arguments, and of inference that is probable, rather than certain. It is in this treatise that Aristotle mentions the predicables, later discussed by Porphyry and by the scholastic logicians.

6. The Sophistical Refutations gives a treatment of logical fallacies, and provides a key link to Aristotle’s work on rhetoric.”

Abu Ali al-Hassan ibn al-Haytham(965-c1040) 5- frequently referred to as Ibn al-Haytham or Alhacen was also an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be proved by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence-hence understanding the scientific method five centuries before Renaissance scientists. He said:

“The seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side.; He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or lenience.”

Also, Albertus Magnus (1193-1250) and Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), two students of scholasticism, a philosophical system emphasizing the use of reason in exploring questions of philosophy and theology. Magnus made a distinction between revealed truth (revelation of something unknown through a divine power) and experimental science and made many scientific observations in astronomy, chemistry, geography and physiology.

Walter A. Shewhart (1891-1967) says about this topic: “Every sentence in order to have definite scientific meaning must be practically or at least theoretically verifiable as either true or false upon the basis of experimental measurements either practically or theoretically obtainable by carrying out a definite and previously specified operation in the future. The meaning of such a sentence is the method of its verification.”

In modern times Genichi Taguchi (1924-2012) wrote that “ A scientific or technical study always consists of the following three steps:

1. One decides the objective

2. One considers the method

3. One evaluates the method in relation to the objective.

The scientific method provides a scientific approach not only to scientifics but to entrepreneurs to create and manage institutions as the startups and get a desired product to customer hands faster. Eric Ries says”

“This is one of the most important lessons of the scientific method: If you cannot fail, you cannot learn.”

In conclusion, the scientific method is a body of techniques, used since ancient times for investigating, acquiring knowledge, correcting errors and integrate these corrections to the previous knowledge and repeat all the steps as necessary to reach a conclusion.